Masson\u2019s account later attracted the interest of other scholars, including Alexander Cunningham. Like Masson, Cunningham was born in Britain and served in the East India Company before developing a strong interest in the archaeology of India. In 1861, he was appointed archaeological surveyor to the Government of British India by Lord Canning, the Viceroy of India. In 1871, he became the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India. From 1856 onwards, Cunningham conducted a number of surveys and small-scale excavations at Harappa. During this period, many bricks from the ancient site were removed and reused as foundation material for the Lahore\u2013Multan railway. It was in this context that the first inscribed seal from Harappa was discovered.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
In 1875, Cunningham published information about this first seal, which had initially been in the possession of an army officer named Clark (Figure 1.3). The seal was square in shape and had a perforated boss on the back, which may have allowed it to be worn or suspended. Cunningham described its design as showing a bull standing in profile, with six signs above it and a star-like motif below its head.\u00b2<\/p>\n\n\n\n Figure 1.3 The First Seal Excavated from the Harappa Site<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n The signs on the seal were clearly not written in the local language then used in the region. At the same time, the animal figure was unusual and did not resemble the local zebu. For these reasons, Cunningham initially considered the seal to be of foreign origin. In 1877, however, he revised his view and suggested that the signs might belong to an ancient Indian script dating back to the fifth century BCE.\u00b3<\/p>\n\n\n\n A second seal was discovered at Harappa by Harvey in 1884 and was later described by Mansel Longworth Dames in his article \u201cOld Seals Found at Harappa,\u201d published in The Indian Antiquary<\/em> in 1886.\u2074 The archaeological context of this seal remains unclear. It bears five signs but no animal motif. The seal is rectangular in shape and made of steatite. A third seal was discovered at Harappa by O\u2019Connor in 1886 and was later recorded by John Faithfull Fleet in his article \u201cThe Seals of Harappa,\u201d published in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland<\/em> in 1912. This seal has six signs engraved on the upper part, while the lower part depicts a unicorn and a vessel-like object resembling a dou<\/em>. Its composition is very similar to that of the seal first published by Cunningham.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The publication of these three seals attracted considerable scholarly attention. In the 1920s, large-scale excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro by the Archaeological Survey of India led to the discovery of many more seals. However, the present locations of a number of early unearthed seals remain unknown.<\/p>\n\n\n\n With the discovery of a large number of seals through archaeological excavation, scholars have gained a clearer understanding of their materials, forms, images, and possible functions. The seals were made from a variety of materials, including steatite, jet, marble, agate, flint, bone, ivory, copper, pottery, and clay. According to their shapes, they may be broadly divided into three main categories: square seals, rectangular seals, and seals of other forms.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Square seals are among the most representative forms of Indus seals. Some have a round or square boss on the back with a perforation, which may have allowed them to be carried with a string, while others have no boss. Their sizes vary, including examples measuring approximately 4.8 \u00d7 4.8 cm, 4 \u00d7 4 cm, 3.3 \u00d7 3.3 cm, and 2.4 \u00d7 2.4 cm. In general, the upper part of the seal contains written signs, while the lower part depicts an animal. Some seals also include vessel-like objects placed beneath the animal\u2019s head (Figure 1.4).<\/p>\n\n\n\n Figure 1.4 Square Seal<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n According to their iconographic motifs, square seals can be divided into several types.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The first and most representative type is the unicorn seal. This is the most frequently discovered type of Indus seal. The unicorn resembles a bull in body shape and appears to be male, but it has only one horn, which curves upward. Some horns are decorated with spiral patterns, which is why scholars commonly refer to the animal as a \u201cunicorn.\u201d In front of the unicorn there is often a special ritual vessel composed of three parts: a lower column, a semicircular bowl-shaped middle section, and an upper vessel with a grid-like pattern. The whole object resembles the ancient Chinese food container known as a dou<\/em>. Written signs are usually engraved above the image.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The second type is the bison seal. The body of the bison is similar to that of the unicorn, but its head droops, its horns are shorter and thicker, and its neck is decorated with stripes. A vessel-like object is often placed beneath the animal\u2019s head, and signs appear above the image.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The third type is the water buffalo seal. This type resembles the bison seal, but the head of the buffalo is raised and its horns are thicker. Unlike the unicorn and bison seals, there is usually no vessel beneath the animal\u2019s head. Signs are engraved above the figure.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The fourth type is the zebu seal. In present-day India, the zebu is regarded as a sacred animal and is highly representative. It is characterised by a large hump on its back and loose skin extending from the neck to the abdomen. These features are depicted on the seals with smooth and continuous lines. The zebu has slender and symmetrically curved horns, but no vessel is shown beneath its head. These seals often contain a relatively large number of written signs.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The fifth type is the antelope seal. The antelope is shown with curved horns, a short upturned tail, and striped patterns on its neck. No vessel appears beneath the animal\u2019s head. These seals generally contain fewer signs, often only two.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The sixth type is the rhinoceros seal. The animal is usually shown as a one-horned rhinoceros. Small circular marks densely cover its chest and hindquarters, giving the impression of armour. Beneath the animal\u2019s head, some seals show dish-shaped vessels similar to those on bison seals, while others show dou<\/em>-shaped vessels similar to those on unicorn seals. Signs are engraved above the animal.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The seventh type is the elephant seal. Elephant seals are marked by distinctive geometric patterns on the front part of the body, while lines are used to depict the hair or folds on the head and body. The ears of the Asian elephant are small and rounded, and no vessel is usually shown beneath the head. Written signs appear above the figure.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The eighth type is the tiger seal. The tiger is depicted with stripes and an open mouth. In some examples, a dish-shaped object appears below the animal. These seals generally contain only a small number of signs.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The ninth type is the crocodile seal. The crocodile is usually shown from above, with detailed depictions of its head and tail. Such seals are relatively rare and usually include written signs above the image.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The tenth type is the composite-animal seal. These seals are relatively few in number and include images combining features of different animals, such as unicorns, antelopes, three-headed bisons, or animals with tiger bodies and bull horns.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The eleventh type is the human-figure seal. These examples are also rare. They usually show a human figure seated in the centre of the seal. The figure is often unusual in form, with the head combined with plant or animal motifs and the limbs resembling those of animals. Written signs are usually placed above the image.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The twelfth type is the geometric-pattern seal. These include seals bearing swastika-like symbols, concentric circles, and other geometric motifs.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Rectangular seals generally contain inscriptions only and do not include animal motifs. Their sizes vary, with examples measuring approximately 4 \u00d7 1.5 cm and 2 \u00d7 1.3 cm (Figure 1.5). Such seals have also been unearthed in considerable numbers.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Figure 1.5 Rectangular Seal<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n Seals of other shapes include circular seals, prism-shaped seals, and cylinder-type seals (Figure 1.6). These seals are relatively few in number. Some of them display stylistic features associated with other regions, suggesting that they may have resulted from interregional cultural contact and exchange.<\/p>\n\n\n\n <\/p>\n\n\n\n Figure 1.6 Circular Seal<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n The contexts in which seals were unearthed provide important clues for understanding their functions. Many seals were found in small rooms, corridors, and other architectural spaces within major urban sites.<\/p>\n\n\n\n At Mohenjo-daro, for example, a steatite seal with an unusual motif was discovered in the northern cell on the eastern side of the so-called sacrificial area. The design on the seal appears to combine features of a rhinoceros and a deer, with circular patterns on the body. In the fourth cell from the north on the same side, a painted pottery spindle whorl was found. Associated with it were fragments of painted pottery with a tubular structure, possibly connected with textile production (Figure 1.7).\u2075<\/p>\n\n\n\n <\/p>\n\n\n\n Figure 1.7 Locations of Seals and Major Artefacts Excavated at Mohenjo-daro<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n In Rooms 3, 4, 5, 8, 21, and 23 of Hall I in the HR-A area, several unicorn seals were discovered. A white human-head statue was also unearthed near the western wall of Room 14, while other parts of the body were found in nearby rooms. After restoration, the figure appears as a seated male with his knees raised, his hands resting on his knees, and his right knee slightly higher than the left. He has a long face, thick beard, prominent nose, and no visible hair, as if wearing a close-fitting cap. In the larger Room 18, archaeologists discovered three unicorn seals. During the excavation of the same courtyard, a human skeleton was found near the southern wall of Room 25, 3 feet 9 inches below the surface. The body had been carefully buried on its left side, with the head resting on the left hand and facing east. It was accompanied by ornaments and several seals. Three broken ivory bracelets were found on the left upper arm, along with metal ornaments around the neck and a necklace of thirteen amber-coloured glass beads.\u2076<\/p>\n\n\n\n A large number of seals were also unearthed in the VS area, including several unusual examples. In Room 91 of Hall XV of the second building in the VS area, archaeologists found a seal depicting a half-human, half-bull figure fighting a tiger with bull horns.\u2077 In Room 1 of the third building, another seal was found showing a horned figure holding a bow and arrow and wearing leaf-like clothing.\u2078 Fragments of circular seals were found in the fourth building. In Room 39 of Hall XXV, a composite-animal seal was discovered. It has a human-like face, bull\u2019s ears, an elephant\u2019s trunk and tusks, a goat\u2019s neck and forelegs, and tiger-like hind legs and claws.\u2079<\/p>\n\n\n\n A considerable number of seals were also recovered from the small rooms of the DK area. In Room 1 of Hall II in the DK-B area, archaeologists unearthed a male statue, incomplete below the abdomen. The figure has a thick beard, full lips, long narrow eyes, and a prominent nose. A headband with a central ornament appears on the head. The left shoulder is covered by a robe, while the right shoulder is exposed. The robe is decorated with trefoil patterns. Archaeologists have commonly referred to this figure as the \u201cPriest-King\u201d statue.\u00b9\u2070<\/p>\n\n\n\n The functions of Indus seals have been widely discussed. First, they may have had secular or administrative functions. The largest and most finely made seals may have belonged to important individuals or institutions. Seals with perforated bosses could have been worn by their owners, while the motifs on the seals may have represented different administrative groups, social identities, or occupational fields.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Second, seals may also have had religious or symbolic functions. In addition to their undeciphered inscriptions, most seals bear images of animals, humans, or composite beings. These motifs may have served as protective symbols or amulets. They therefore provide some of the most important evidence for the study of Harappan religious beliefs and symbolic systems.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Today, many Indus seals are preserved in the National Museum of Pakistan, the Harappa Site Museum, the Mohenjo-daro Site Museum, and the National Museum of India. In addition, forty-two seals are reportedly held in fourteen museums across eight other countries. Among them, the British Museum preserves three Harappa seals and eight Mohenjo-daro seals.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The interpretation of Indus seals remains one of the most challenging questions in South Asian archaeology. Many Western scholars have argued that the signs on the seals may represent a phonetic script and have attempted to decipher them by comparison with cuneiform and ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs. However, despite more than a century of research, the Indus script remains undeciphered.<\/p>\n\n\n\n \u00b9 Masson C., Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan, the Panjab and Kalat<\/em> [M]. London: Richard Bentley, New Burlington Street, 1844, pp. 452\u2013454. Edited by: TJ In the early 1820s, Charles Masson, a British soldier who had joined the East India Company and later left the army, travelled…<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":94,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-91","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-articles"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/harappadeepseek.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/91","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/harappadeepseek.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/harappadeepseek.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/harappadeepseek.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/harappadeepseek.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=91"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/harappadeepseek.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/91\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":98,"href":"https:\/\/harappadeepseek.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/91\/revisions\/98"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/harappadeepseek.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/media\/94"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/harappadeepseek.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=91"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/harappadeepseek.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcategories&post=91"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/harappadeepseek.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Ftags&post=91"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}![\"\"](\"https:\/\/harappadeepseek.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/06\/image-3.png\")
<\/figure>\n\n\n\n1. Square Seals<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/harappadeepseek.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/06\/image-4.png\")
<\/figure>\n\n\n\n2. Rectangular Seals<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/harappadeepseek.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/06\/image-5.png\")
<\/figure>\n\n\n\n3. Seals of Other Shapes<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/harappadeepseek.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/06\/image-6.png\")
<\/figure>\n\n\n\n![\"\"](\"https:\/\/harappadeepseek.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/06\/image-7.png\")
<\/figure>\n\n\n\n
\n\n\n\n
\u00b2 Alexander Cunningham, Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of India<\/em>, Vol. V [M]. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, 1875, p. 108.
\u00b3 Cunningham A., Inscriptions of Asoka<\/em> [M]. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, 1877, p. 60.
\u2074 Dames M. L., \u201cOld Seals Found at Harappa\u201d [J]. The Indian Antiquary<\/em>, 1886, 15: 1.
\u2075 Marshall J., Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilisation<\/em> [M]. London: Arthur Probsthain, 1931, p. 136.
\u2076 Marshall J., Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilisation<\/em> [M]. London: Arthur Probsthain, 1931, pp. 177\u2013178, 643.
\u2077 Marshall J., Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilisation<\/em> [M]. London: Arthur Probsthain, 1931, p. 220.
\u2078 Marshall J., Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilisation<\/em> [M]. London: Arthur Probsthain, 1931, p. 222.
\u2079 Marshall J., Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilisation<\/em> [M]. London: Arthur Probsthain, 1931, pp. 226\u2013227.
\u00b9\u2070 Marshall J., Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilisation<\/em> [M]. London: Arthur Probsthain, 1931, p. 254.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"